In recent decades, nationalism has experienced a significant resurgence across the globe, becoming a dominant political force in many countries. What was once considered a fading ideology has reasserted itself in the political, social, and cultural spheres, challenging the liberal international order that has dominated since the end of the Cold War. From Brexit in the United Kingdom to the rise of populist movements in the United States, India, Brazil, and Hungary, nationalism is shaping both domestic policies and international relations in profound ways.
This article explores the resurgence of nationalism, its historical roots, the reasons behind its revival, and its impact on global politics today.
Understanding Nationalism
Nationalism is an ideology centered around the belief that a group of people, sharing common characteristics such as language, culture, history, and often ethnicity, should have the right to govern themselves within their own state or territory. Nationalism asserts that national identity—defined by shared values and a common heritage—is a unifying force, and that a nation’s sovereignty should be protected from external influences.
Nationalism can take different forms, ranging from civic nationalism, which emphasizes loyalty to a political system and citizenship rather than ethnic or cultural characteristics, to ethnic nationalism, which stresses the importance of a shared ancestry or cultural heritage. Though nationalism has historically been associated with movements for independence and self-determination, it can also manifest in more exclusionary forms, where certain groups are privileged over others based on ethnicity, religion, or language.
Historical Context: The Rise of Nationalism
Nationalism emerged in the modern world in the 18th and 19th centuries, primarily as a response to the collapse of empires and the increasing desire for political autonomy. The French Revolution (1789) played a key role in popularizing nationalism, promoting the idea of the nation-state and the rights of people to govern themselves. This idea was further spread by the Napoleonic Wars and subsequent struggles for independence throughout Europe and the Americas.
In the 19th century, nationalism became a key force in the unification of Germany and Italy, as well as in the independence movements in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. For example, in the United States, nationalism was pivotal during the American Revolution and later during the Civil War, where questions of state sovereignty and national unity were contested.
In the 20th century, nationalism played a central role in the decolonization process, as many nations in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean gained independence from colonial powers. At the same time, nationalism contributed to the rise of fascist movements in Europe, particularly in Italy and Germany, culminating in the outbreak of World War II.
In the post-war period, especially after the Cold War, nationalism seemed to fade into the background as global cooperation and integration, particularly through institutions like the United Nations (UN) and the European Union (EU), gained prominence. However, nationalism has made a dramatic comeback in recent years, challenging the dominant liberal internationalist order.
The Global Resurgence of Nationalism
The global resurgence of nationalism in the 21st century is marked by a rise in populist movements and leaders who prioritize national interests over global cooperation. Several factors have contributed to this revival, including economic challenges, migration, political polarization, and the perceived failure of global institutions to address local concerns.
1. Economic Inequality and Globalization
One of the key drivers of the resurgence of nationalism is the economic dissatisfaction caused by globalization. While globalization has brought about significant economic growth, it has also led to rising inequality, with many working-class individuals in developed countries feeling left behind by the global economy. As jobs have been outsourced to countries with lower labor costs, and as large corporations have benefitted from deregulation, many individuals have experienced job insecurity, stagnant wages, and economic hardship.
Nationalist movements often exploit these grievances by positioning themselves as champions of local industries and jobs, promising to protect national economies from the negative impacts of global trade. Leaders who advocate for protectionist policies, such as tariffs on imports, are often seen as responding to the economic concerns of disenfranchised citizens.
2. Immigration and Cultural Anxiety
Another significant factor contributing to the rise of nationalism is immigration. In many countries, particularly in Europe, large influxes of migrants from the Middle East, Africa, and Asia have sparked fears about cultural identity and the loss of national sovereignty. Nationalist movements often argue that uncontrolled immigration threatens the cultural homogeneity of a nation, and that immigration policies should be more restrictive to protect national borders and identities.
In countries like Hungary, Poland, and Italy, nationalist leaders have made opposition to immigration central to their political platforms. This fear of cultural dilution is often framed as a defense of traditional values, and it plays on anxieties about changing demographic and cultural landscapes.
3. Political Polarization and Disillusionment with Elites
Nationalism is also rising in response to increasing political polarization and a growing distrust of political elites. In many democracies, there is a perception that traditional political parties and leaders are out of touch with the needs of ordinary citizens. Populist nationalist leaders often present themselves as outsiders, rejecting the political establishment and promising to represent “the people” against a corrupt elite.
For example, Donald Trump‘s election as President of the United States in 2016 was a direct challenge to the political establishment, and his “America First” platform emphasized nationalism, protectionism, and skepticism of international agreements. Similarly, in Brazil, Jair Bolsonaro‘s rise to power was fueled by nationalist rhetoric that sought to return Brazil to its traditional values and challenge the influence of global institutions.
4. The Erosion of Trust in Global Institutions
Since the end of the Cold War, global institutions like the United Nations, the World Trade Organization (WTO), and regional organizations like the European Union have promoted international cooperation, peace, and trade. However, many people feel that these institutions have failed to address their immediate concerns or have acted in the interests of multinational corporations, rather than the average citizen.
Nationalist movements often criticize the role of supranational organizations in undermining national sovereignty. For example, Brexit was driven by concerns that the United Kingdom’s membership in the European Union (EU) eroded its ability to make independent decisions on issues like immigration and trade. Nationalist leaders argue that countries should prioritize their own interests and reclaim control over their borders, economies, and policies.
Key Examples of Nationalism Today
1. Brexit (United Kingdom)
The Brexit referendum in 2016 was one of the most significant events in the global resurgence of nationalism. The decision of the United Kingdom to leave the European Union was driven by concerns over sovereignty, immigration, and economic control. Nationalist rhetoric, often framed around the desire to “take back control,” played a central role in the campaign, highlighting fears about the EU’s bureaucratic influence over British laws and policies.
The vote to leave the EU was not only a reflection of nationalism in the UK, but also of a broader trend of skepticism toward global integration.
2. Populism in the United States
In the United States, Donald Trump’s presidency marked a notable turn toward nationalism and populism. Trump’s “America First” slogan and policies emphasized a protectionist stance on trade, a hardline approach to immigration, and a rejection of international agreements like the Paris Agreement on climate change. Trump’s brand of nationalism was closely tied to a broader populist movement that rejected political elites and the so-called “establishment.”
3. Nationalism in Eastern Europe
Nationalism has also surged in Eastern Europe, where countries like Hungary and Poland have seen the rise of populist, right-wing governments. Viktor Orbán in Hungary, for instance, has embraced a form of nationalism that emphasizes sovereignty, cultural preservation, and resistance to migration. Similarly, Jarosław Kaczyński’s Law and Justice Party in Poland has promoted policies that prioritize national interests over EU regulations, challenging the EU’s authority on issues related to immigration and human rights.
4. India’s Hindutva Nationalism
In India, Prime Minister Narendra Modi and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) have embraced a form of Hindu nationalism known as Hindutva, which promotes the idea that India is fundamentally a Hindu nation. This form of nationalism has led to increased tensions between religious communities, particularly between Hindus and Muslims, and has raised concerns about the erosion of secularism in Indian politics.
5. China’s Nationalism
In China, nationalism has been revived under President Xi Jinping, who has emphasized national pride and the centrality of the Communist Party. Xi’s government has promoted a vision of a strong, resurgent China that is reclaiming its place on the global stage. The Chinese Communist Party has used nationalism as a tool to bolster its legitimacy, focusing on issues like the reunification of Taiwan, the South China Sea, and the assertion of China’s economic and political influence.
The Impact of Nationalism on Global Politics
The resurgence of nationalism is reshaping global politics in several ways:
- Protectionism and Trade Wars: Nationalist movements often advocate for protectionist economic policies, such as tariffs on foreign goods and restrictions on trade agreements. This can lead to trade wars, as seen in the U.S.-China trade conflict during Trump’s presidency.
- Decline of Multilateralism: Nationalist governments are often skeptical of multilateral institutions like the UN, WTO, and EU, preferring to act unilaterally or within smaller coalitions that prioritize national interests.